2.1 Pretreatment Screening

Prior to treating patients with methylphenidate hydrochloride oral solution, assess:

• for the presence of cardiac disease (i.e., perform a careful history, family history of sudden death or ventricular arrhythmia, and physical exam) [see Warnings and Precautions (5.2)].
• the family history and clinically evaluate patients for motor or verbal tics or Tourette’s syndrome [see Warnings and Precautions (5.10)].

2.2 General Dosing Information

Pediatric Patients 6 years of Age and Older
The recommended starting dosage is 5 mg orally twice daily before breakfast and lunch (preferably 30  to 45 minutes before meals). Increase the dosage gradually, in increments of 5 mg to 10 mg weekly. Daily dosage above 60 mg is not recommended.

Adults
Administer orally in divided doses 2 or 3 times daily, preferably 30 to 45 minutes before meals. The maximum recommended daily dose is 60 mg. The average dosage is 20 to 30 mg daily. For adult patients who are unable to sleep if medication is taken late in the day, administer the last dose before 6 p.m.

2.3 Dosage Reduction and Discontinuation

If paradoxical aggravation of symptoms or other adverse reactions occur, reduce dosage, or, if necessary, discontinue methylphenidate hydrochloride oral solution. If improvement is not observed after appropriate dosage adjustment over a one- month period, discontinue methylphenidate hydrochloride oral solution.

5.1 Abuse, Misuse, and Addiction

Methylphenidate hydrochloride oral solution has a high potential for abuse and misuse. The use of methylphenidate hydrochloride oral solution exposes individuals to the risks of abuse and misuse, which can lead to the development of a substance use disorder, including addiction. Methylphenidate hydrochloride oral solution can be diverted for non-medical use into illicit channels or distribution [see Drug Abuse and Dependence (9.2)]. Misuse and abuse of CNS stimulants, including methylphenidate hydrochloride oral solution, can result in overdose and death [see Overdosage (10)], and this risk is increased with higher doses or unapproved methods of administration, such as snorting or injection.

Before prescribing methylphenidate hydrochloride oral solution, assess each patient’s risk for abuse, misuse, and addiction. Educate patients and their families about these risks and proper disposal of any unused drug. Advise patients to store methylphenidate hydrochloride oral solution in a safe place, preferably locked, and instruct patients to not give methylphenidate hydrochloride oral solution to anyone else. Throughout methylphenidate hydrochloride oral solution treatment, reassess each patient’s risk of abuse, misuse, and addiction and frequently monitor for signs and symptoms of abuse, misuse, and addiction.

5.2 Risks to Patients with Serious Cardiac Disease

Sudden death has been reported in patients with structural cardiac abnormalities or other serious cardiac disease who were treated with CNS stimulants at the recommended ADHD dosage.

Avoid methylphenidate hydrochloride oral solution use in patients with known structural cardiac abnormalities, cardiomyopathy, serious cardiac arrythmia, coronary artery disease, or other serious cardiac disease.

5.3 Increased Blood Pressure and Heart Rate

CNS stimulants cause an increase in blood pressure (mean increase approximately 2 to 4 mmHg) and  heart rate (mean increase approximately 3 to 6 bpm). Some patients may have larger increases.

Monitor all methylphenidate-treated patients for hypertension and tachycardia.

5.4 Psychiatric Adverse Reactions

Exacerbation of Pre-Existing Psychosis
CNS stimulants may exacerbate symptoms of behavior disturbance and thought disorder in patients with a pre-existing psychotic disorder.

Induction of a Manic Episode in Patients with Bipolar Illness
CNS stimulants may induce a manic or mixed mood episode in patients. Prior to initiating methylphenidate hydrochloride oral solution treatment, screen patients for risk factors for developing a manic episode (e.g., comorbid or history of depressive  symptoms or a family history of suicide, bipolar disorder, or depression).

New Psychotic or Manic Symptoms
CNS stimulants, at the recommended dosages, may cause psychotic or manic symptoms (e.g., hallucinations, delusional thinking, or mania) in patients without a prior history of psychotic illness or mania. In a pooled analysis of multiple short- term, placebo-controlled studies of CNS stimulants, psychotic or manic symptoms occurred in approximately 0.1% of CNS stimulant-treated patients, compared to 0% in placebo-treated patients. If such symptoms occur, consider discontinuing methylphenidate hydrochloride oral solution.

5.5 Priapism

Prolonged and painful erections, sometimes requiring surgical intervention, have been reported with methylphenidate use in both adult and pediatric male patients. Although priapism was not reported with methylphenidate initiation, it developed after some time on methylphenidate, often subsequent to an increase in dosage. Priapism also occurred during methylphenidate withdrawal (drug holidays or during discontinuation).

Methylphenidate-treated patients who develop abnormally sustained or frequent and painful erections should seek immediate medical attention.

5.6 Peripheral Vasculopathy, Including Raynaud’s Phenomenon

CNS stimulants, including methylphenidate hydrochloride oral solution, used to treat ADHD are associated with peripheral vasculopathy, including Raynaud’s phenomenon. Signs and symptoms are usually intermittent and mild; however, sequelae have included digital ulceration and/or soft tissue breakdown. Effects of peripheral vasculopathy, including Raynaud’s phenomenon, were observed in postmarketing reports and at the therapeutic dosages of CNS stimulants in all age groups throughout the course of treatment. Signs and symptoms generally improved after dosage reduction or discontinuation of the CNS stimulant.

Careful observation for digital changes is necessary during methylphenidate hydrochloride oral solution treatment. Further clinical evaluation (e.g., rheumatology referral) may be appropriate for Methylphenidate-treated patients who develop signs or symptoms of peripheral vasculopathy.

5.7 Long-Term Suppression of Growth in Pediatric Patients

CNS stimulants have been associated with weight loss and slowing of growth rate in pediatric patients.

Careful follow-up of weight and height in children ages 7 to 10 years who were randomized to either methylphenidate or non-medication treatment groups over 14 months, as well as in naturalistic subgroups of newly methylphenidate-treated and non-medication treated pediatric patients over 36 months (to the ages of 10 to 13 years), suggests that pediatric patients who received methylphenidate for 7 days per week throughout the year had a temporary slowing in growth rate (on average, a total of about 2 cm less growth in height and 2.7 kg less growth in weight over 3 years), without evidence of growth rebound during this development period.

Closely monitor growth (weight and height) in Methylphenidate-treated pediatric patients. Pediatric patients who are not growing or gaining height or weight as expected may need to have their treatment interrupted. The safety and effectiveness of methylphenidate hydrochloride oral solution have not been established in pediatric  patient less than 6 years of age.

5.8 Acute Angle Closure Glaucoma

There have been reports of angle closure glaucoma associated with methylphenidate treatment. Although the mechanism is not clear, methylphenidate-treated patients considered at risk for acute angle closure glaucoma (e.g., patients with significant hyperopia) should be evaluated by an ophthalmologist.

5.9 Increased Intraocular Pressure and Glaucoma

There have been reports of an elevation of intraocular pressure (IOP) associated with methylphenidate treatment [see Adverse Reactions (6.2)].

Prescribe methylphenidate hydrochloride oral solution to patients with open-angle glaucoma or abnormally increased IOP only if the benefit of treatment is considered to outweigh the risk. Closely monitor methylphenidate-treated patients with a history of abnormally increased IOP or open-angle glaucoma.

5.10 Motor and Verbal Tics, and Worsening of Tourette’s Syndrome

CNS stimulants, including methylphenidate, have been associated with the onset or exacerbation of motor and verbal tics. Worsening of Tourette’s syndrome has also been reported [see Adverse Reactions (6.2)].

Before initiating methylphenidate hydrochloride oral solution, assess the family history and clinically evaluate patients for tics or Tourette’s syndrome. Regularly monitor methylphenidate-treated patients for the emergence or worsening of tics or Tourette’s syndrome, and discontinue treatment if clinically appropriate.

7.1 Clinically Important Drug Interactions with Methylphenidate Hydrochloride Oral Solution

Table 1 presents clinically important drug interactions with methylphenidate hydrochloride oral solution.

Table 1: Clinically Important Drug Interactions with Methylphenidate Hydrochloride Oral Solution

8.1 Pregnancy

Pregnancy Exposure Registry
There is a pregnancy exposure registry that monitors pregnancy outcomes in women exposed to ADHD  medications, including methylphenidate hydrochloride oral solution, during pregnancy. Healthcare providers are encouraged to register patients by calling the National Pregnancy Registry for Psychostimulants at 1-866-961-2388.

Risk Summary
Published studies and postmarketing reports on methylphenidate use during pregnancy have not identified a drug-associated risk of major birth defects, miscarriage or adverse maternal or fetal outcomes. There may be risks to the fetus associated with the use of CNS stimulants use during pregnancy (see Clinical Considerations).

No effects on morphological development were observed in embryo-fetal development studies with oral administration of methylphenidate to pregnant rats and rabbits during organogenesis at doses up  to 12 and 19 times, respectively, the maximum recommended human dose (MRHD) of 60 mg/day given to adults on a mg/m2 basis. However, spina bifida was observed in rabbits at a dose 65 times the MRHD given to adults. A decrease in pup body weight was observed in a pre- and post-natal development study with oral administration of methylphenidate to rats throughout pregnancy and lactation at doses 7 times the MRHD given to adults (see Data).

The estimated background risk of major birth defects and miscarriage for the indicated population is unknown. All pregnancies have a background risk of birth defect, loss, or other adverse outcomes. In the U.S. general population, the estimated background risk of major birth defects and miscarriage in clinically recognized pregnancies is 2% to 4% and 15% to 20%, respectively.

Clinical Considerations
Fetal/Neonatal Adverse Reactions
CNS stimulants, such as methylphenidate hydrochloride oral solution, can cause vasoconstriction and thereby decrease placental perfusion. No fetal and/or neonatal adverse reactions have been reported with the use of therapeutic doses of methylphenidate during pregnancy; however, premature delivery and low birth weight infants have been reported in amphetamine-dependent mothers.

Data
Animal Data
In embryo-fetal development studies conducted in rats and rabbits, methylphenidate was administered orally at doses of up to 75 and 200 mg/kg/day, respectively, during the period of organogenesis. Malformations (increased incidence of fetal spina bifida) were observed in rabbits at the highest dose, which is approximately 65 times the MRHD of 60 mg/day given to adults on a mg/m2 basis. The no effect level for embryo-fetal development in rabbits was 60 mg/kg/day (19 times the MRHD given to adults on a mg/m2 basis). There was no evidence of morphological development effects in rats, although increased incidences of fetal skeletal variations were seen at the highest dose level (12 times the MRHD of 60 mg/day given to adults on a mg/m2 basis), which was also maternally toxic. The no effect level for embryo-fetal development in rats was 25 mg/kg/day (4 times the MRHD on a mg/m2 basis). When methylphenidate was administered to rats throughout pregnancy and lactation at doses of up to 45 mg/kg/day, offspring body weight gain was decreased at the highest dose (7 times the MRHD of 60 mg/day given to adults on a mg/m2 basis), but no other effects on postnatal development were observed. The no effect level for pre- and postnatal development in rats was 15 mg/kg/day (~2 times the MRHD given to adults on a mg/m2 basis).

8.2 Lactation

Risk Summary
Limited published literature, based on milk sampling from seven mothers reports that methylphenidate  is present in human milk, which resulted in infant doses of 0.16% to 0.7% of the maternal weight- adjusted dosage and a milk/plasma ratio ranging between 1.1 and 2.7. There are no reports of adverse  effects on the breastfed infant and no effects on milk production. Long-term neurodevelopmental effects on infants from stimulant exposure are unknown. The developmental and health benefits of breastfeeding should be considered along with the mother’s clinical need for methylphenidate hydrochloride oral solution and any potential  adverse effects on the breastfed infant from methylphenidate hydrochloride oral solution or from the underlying maternal condition.

Clinical Considerations
Monitor breastfeeding infants for adverse reactions, such as agitation, insomnia, anorexia, and reduced  weight gain.

8.4 Pediatric Use

The safety and effectiveness of methylphenidate hydrochloride oral solution for the treatment of ADHD have been established in pediatric patients six years of age and older. The safety and effectiveness of methylphenidate hydrochloride oral solution in pediatric patients under  six years of age have not been established. The long-term efficacy of methylphenidate in pediatric patients has not been established.

Long-Term Suppression of Growth
Growth should be monitored during treatment with stimulants, including methylphenidate hydrochloride oral solution. Pediatric patients who are not growing or gaining weight as expected may need to have their treatment interrupted [see Warnings and Precautions (5.6)].

Juvenile Animal Toxicity Data
In a study conducted in young rats, methylphenidate was administered orally at doses of up to 100 mg/kg/day for 9 weeks, starting early in the postnatal period (postnatal Day 7) and continuing through sexual maturity (postnatal Week 10). When these animals were tested as adults (postnatal Weeks 13-14), decreased spontaneous locomotor activity was observed in males and females previously treated with 50 mg/kg/day (approximately 4 times the MRHD of 60 mg/day given to children on a mg/m2 basis) or greater, and a deficit in the acquisition of a specific learning task was seen in females exposed to the highest dose (8 times the MRHD given to children on a mg/m2 basis). The no effect level for juvenile neurobehavioral development in rats (5 mg/kg/day) is less than the MRHD given to children on a mg/m2 basis. The clinical significance of the long-term behavioral effects observed in rats is unknown.

8.5 Geriatric Use

Methylphenidate hydrochloride oral solution has not been studied in the geriatric population.

9.1 Controlled Substance

Methylphenidate hydrochloride oral solution contains methylphenidate hydrochloride, a Schedule II controlled substance.

9.2 Abuse

Methylphenidate hydrochloride oral solution has a high potential for abuse and misuse which can lead to the development of a substance use disorder, including addiction [see Warnings and Precautions (5.1)]. Methylphenidate hydrochloride oral solution can be diverted for non medical use into illicit channels or distribution.

Abuse is the intentional non-therapeutic use of a drug, even once, to achieve a desired psychological or physiological effect. Misuse is the intentional use, for therapeutic purposes, of a drug by an individual in a way other than prescribed by a healthcare provider or for whom it was not prescribed. Drug addiction is a cluster of behavioral, cognitive, and physiological phenomena that may include a strong desire to take the drug, difficulties in controlling drug use (e.g., continuing drug use despite harmful consequences, giving a higher priority to drug use than other activities and obligations), and possible tolerance or physical dependence.

Misuse and abuse of methylphenidate may cause increased heart rate, respiratory rate, or blood pressure; sweating; dilated pupils; hyperactivity; restlessness; insomnia; decreased appetite; loss of coordination; tremors; flushed skin; vomiting; and/or abdominal pain. Anxiety, psychosis, hostility, aggression, and suicidal or homicidal ideation have also been observed with CNS stimulants abuse and/or misuse. Misuse and abuse of CNS stimulants, including methylphenidate hydrochloride oral solution, can result in overdose and death [see Overdosage (10)], and this risk is increased with higher doses and or unapproved methods of administration, such as snorting or injection.

9.3 Dependence

Physical Dependence
Methylphenidate hydrochloride oral solution may produce physical dependence. Physical dependence is a state that develops as a result of physiological adaptation in response to repeated drug use, manifested by withdrawal signs and symptoms after abrupt discontinuation or a significant dose reduction of a drug.

Withdrawal signs and symptoms after abrupt discontinuation or dose reduction following prolonged use of CNS stimulants including methylphenidate hydrochloride oral solution include dysphoric mood; depression; fatigue; vivid, unpleasant dreams; insomnia or hypersomnia; increased appetite; and psychomotor retardation or agitation.

Tolerance
Methylphenidate hydrochloride oral solution may produce tolerance. Tolerance is a physiological state characterized by a reduced response to a drug after repeated administration (i.e., a higher dose of a drug is required to produce the same effect that was once obtained at a lower dose).

12.1 Mechanism of Action

Methylphenidate hydrochloride is a central nervous system (CNS) stimulant. The mode of therapeutic action in ADHD is not known.

12.2 Pharmacodynamics

Methylphenidate is a racemic mixture comprised of the d- and l-threo enantiomers. The d-threo enantiomer is more pharmacologically active than the l-threo enantiomer. Methylphenidate blocks the reuptake of norepinephrine and dopamine into the presynaptic neuron and increases the release of these monoamines into the extraneuronal space.

Cardiac Electrophysiology
A formal QT study has not been conducted in subjects taking methylphenidate hydrochloride oral solution.

The effect of dexmethylphenidate, the pharmacologically active d-enantiomer of methylphenidate hydrochloride oral solution, on the QT  interval was evaluated in a double-blind, placebo- and open-label active (moxifloxacin)-controlled study following single doses of 40 mg dexmethylphenidate hydrochloride extended-release capsule in 75 healthy volunteers. Electrocardiograms were collected up to 12 hours postdose. Frederica’s method for heart rate correction was employed to derive the corrected QT interval (QTcF). The maximum mean prolongation of QTcF intervals was less than 5 ms, and the upper limit of the 90% confidence interval was below 10 ms for all time-matched comparisons versus placebo. This was below the threshold of clinical concern and there was no evident exposure response relationship.

12.3 Pharmacokinetics

Absorption
Following a single dose administration of 20 mg methylphenidate hydrochloride oral solution and 20 mg tablet of methylphenidate hydrochloride in healthy volunteers under fasted conditions, time to peak plasma concentration (Tmax)  of methylphenidate was at 1 to 2 hours after dosing, and:

• The mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of methylphenidate was 9.1 ng/mL and 9.8 ng/mL, respectively.
• The mean area under concentration curve (AUC) of methylphenidate was 46.7 hour*ng/mL and 50.0 hour*ng/mL, respectively.

Effect of Food
Ingestion of a high-fat meal with methylphenidate hydrochloride oral solution increased methylphenidate mean Cmax and AUC by about  13% and 25%, respectively. Time to Cmax (Tmax) was delayed by approximately 1 hour.

Distribution
Plasma protein binding is 10% to 33%. The volume of distribution was 2.65 ± 1.11 L/kg for d-methylphenidate and 1.80 ± 0.91 L/kg for l-methylphenidate.

Elimination
The mean terminal half-life (t½) of methylphenidate was 2.7 hours following administration of 20 mg  methylphenidate hydrochloride oral solution. The systemic clearance is 0.40 ± 0.12 L/h/kg for d-methylphenidate and 0.73 ± 0.28 L/h/kg for l-methylphenidate.

Metabolism
Methylphenidate is metabolized primarily by deesterification to alpha-phenyl-piperidine acetic acid (ritalinic acid), which has little or no pharmacologic activity.

Excretion
After oral dosing of radiolabeled methylphenidate in humans, about 90% of the radioactivity was recovered in urine. The main urinary metabolite was ritalinic acid, accounting for approximately 80% of  the dose.

Specific Populations
Male and Female Patients, Racial Groups, and Age
The effect of gender, race, and age on the pharmacokinetics of methylphenidate after methylphenidate hydrochloride oral solution administration have not been studied.

Patients with Renal Impairment
Methylphenidate hydrochloride oral solution has not been studied in in patients with renal impairment. Since renal clearance is not an important route of methylphenidate clearance, renal impairment is expected to have little effect on the pharmacokinetics of methylphenidate hydrochloride oral solution.

Patients with Hepatic Impairment
Methylphenidate hydrochloride oral solution has not been studied in patients with hepatic impairment. Since methylphenidate is metabolized primarily to ritalinic acid by nonmicrosomal hydrolytic esterases that are widely distributed throughout the body, hepatic impairment is expected to have minimal effect on the pharmacokinetics of methylphenidate hydrochloride oral solution.

13.1 Carcinogenesis, Mutagenesis, Impairment of Fertility

Carcinogenesis
In a lifetime carcinogenicity study carried out in B6C3F1 mice, methylphenidate caused an increase in hepatocellular adenomas and, in males only, an increase in hepatoblastomas, at a daily dose of approximately 60 mg/kg/day. This dose is approximately 5 times the maximum recommended human dose (MRHD) of 60 mg/kg given to adults on a mg/m2 basis. Hepatoblastoma is a relatively rare rodent  malignant tumor type. There was no increase in total malignant hepatic tumors. The mouse strain used  is sensitive to the development of hepatic tumors, and the significance of these results to humans is unknown.

Methylphenidate did not cause any increase in tumors in a lifetime carcinogenicity study carried out in F344 rats; the highest dose used was approximately 45 mg/kg/day, which is approximately 7 times the  MRHD (adults) on a mg/m2 basis.

In a 24-week carcinogenicity study in the transgenic mouse strain p53+/-, which is sensitive to genotoxic  carcinogens, there was no evidence of carcinogenicity. Male and female mice were fed diets containing  the same concentration of methylphenidate as in the lifetime carcinogenicity study; the high-dose groups were exposed to 60 to 74 mg/kg/day of methylphenidate.

Mutagenesis
Methylphenidate was not mutagenic in the in vitro Ames reverse mutation assay, in the in vitro mouse  lymphoma cell forward mutation assay, or in the in vitro chromosomal aberration assay using human lymphocytes. Sister chromatid exchanges and chromosome aberrations were increased, indicative of a weak clastogenic response, in an in vitro assay in cultured Chinese Hamster Ovary (CHO) cells. Methylphenidate was negative in vivo in males and females in the mouse bone marrow micronucleus assay.

Impairment of Fertility
No human data on the effect of methylphenidate on fertility are available. Methylphenidate did not impair  fertility in male or female mice that were fed diets containing the drug in an 18-week continuous breeding study. The study was conducted at doses up to 160 mg/kg/day, approximately 13 times the maximum recommended human dose of 60 mg/day given to adults on a mg/m2 basis.